LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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Shelf .X£=* 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Jtostou School levies 



NOTES OF LESSONS 



FOR 



YOUNG TEACHERS 



Sititb 4Bobds from victual 3£ lamination papers 



JOHN TAYLOR 

AI/TIIOK OF " HOW TO COMPOSE AND WHITE LETTERS" AND 
"GREAT LESSONS FROM LITTLE THINGS" 



OCT 7 im 

BOSTON 

BOSTON SCHOOL SUPPLY COMPANY 

1889 






-p^ 



Copyright, 1S89, 
By Boston School Supply Co. 



C. J. PETERS & SON, 

Typographers and Electrotypers, Boston, 

Press of Berwick & Smith. 



PREFACE. 



Practical teachers have long felt the need of a 
small Manual of Notes of Lessons that could be put 
into the hands of a young teacher at the commence- 
ment of his career, and would guide, encourage, and 
help him to master the great secrets of his profession. 

Some books contain a vast amount of information, 
condensed, arranged in the form of notes, and pre- 
sented as models for imitation. Other books contain 
hints and advice on method, and many important 
notes on the art of teaching. And from these two 
kinds of books the young teacher has been required 
to gather his ideas of matter and method. 

The Author believes that a judicious combination 
of the two sources of information would be of great 
service to young teat hers. 

He therefore explains the Essential Features of a 
Lesson, sketches the Plan of a Lesson, discusses the 
Subject-matter of a Lesson, gives valuable hints on 
the Manner of a Teacher, with a short chapter on 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

Tact, and shows how to Prepare and Give a Lesson. 
The concluding chapters consist of Examples and 
Answers to Examination Questions. 

The Author has been a teacher, and has served 
many of the best years of his life as master of a 
large school. Twenty years' experience of public 
school life has enabled him to enter into a young 
teacher's feelings with deep sympathy. He has 
trained many who are now serving the cause of edu- 
cation successfully and honorably, and the methods 
he tested and found most valuable to them have 
been embodied in this little Manual. He trusts that 
it will render wise counsel, valuable information, and 
timely help to his young friends. 

JOHN TAYLOR. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction 7 

CHAPTER I. 
The Essential Features of a Lesson ... 10 

CHArTER II. 
The Plan of a Le>son 18 

CHAPTEB III. 
The Subject-Matter of a Lesson .... 26 

CHAPTER IV. 
Tin: Manner of the Teacher 35 

CHAPTER V. 
Tact 42 

CHAPTER VI. 
Tiie Preparation of a Lesson 48 

CHAPTER VII. 
Outline Notes: Mediterranean Sea — Idleness- 
Railroads of England— Coal — The Cow — Cli- 
mate — The Whale— British India — Riveks — 
Gibraltar — Sugar — The Lion .... 57 

5 



6 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

PAGE 

Preparation of Full Notes: The Camel— A Read- 
ing Lesson ^ 

CHAPTER IX. 

Full Notes : Seeds — Auxiliary Verbs — The Rein- 
deer—A Posted Letter 90 

CHAPTER X. 
Examination Questions 100 



NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG 
TEACHERS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

In teaching, as in all other professions, progress is 
slow and gradual. A youth begins with the purely 
mechanical parts of his work, and spends much of his 
time in learning how to use his tools and handle them 
efficiently. He must learn to serve before he can be 
permitted to rule. And it is only by practical ex- 
perience and skill that he can .hope to rise in his 
profession. 

A young teacher spends much time in observing 
and studying the example of other teachers, and in 
purely mechanical work, such as the examination of 
the children's lessons, or the oversight of their writ- 
ing and dictation. As his experience ripens, and his 
knowledge of the profession improves, he is promoted 
to a more responsible and important duty. He attempts 
to give lessons in reading, or spelling, or arithmetic. 
Thus he gradually gains knowledge, and experience, 
and confidence, and power. 

The highest aim of his ambition is to be able to 
give a good oral or collective lesson. He has seen a 
clever teacher take a class, or two or three classes 

7 



8 NOTES OF LESSONS FOP. YOUNG TEACHERS. 

grouped together, and give them a collective lesson ; 
but he has no idea of the difficulty of the task till he 
attempts to give a lesson for the first time. 

A good oral lesson is a highly complex and intel- 
lectual production. It depends for its success on 
many conditions. There must be suitable matter, 
wisely arranged on an intelligent plan, and clearly 
illustrated. There must be a definite purpose before 
the teacher, and he must be able to command and sus- 
tain the attention of the children, and present his 
facts in an agreeable manner. I have sometimes said 
that a good lesson should be like a good dinner, pre- 
pared with a great variety of materials, well cooked, 
tastefully served, easily digested, and highly nutri- 
tious. 

The teacher who can give a good oral lesson has 
conquered all the practical difficulties of his profes- 
sion. He is ready to be thrown upon his own resources, 
and to feel that the success of the lesson depends en- 
tirely on himself. He can supply from his own stores 
of information facts that will instruct and interest 
the children. He can direct their thoughts into right 
channels, and lead them to wise conclusions. 

Next in importance to the delivery of a good lesson, 
we recognize the importance of preparing a lesson. 
We can only teach what we know, and things are 
easy or difficult according to our knowledge of 
them. 

We must therefore ask ourselves : What is a les- 
son ? How should a lesson be given ? How should 



INTRODUCTION. \) 

a lesson be prepared ? Can any young teacher become 
a successful teacher ? 

If these questions are answered intelligently, and 
young teachers can be induced to take the hints and 
follow the advice of an old teacher, they may find 
themselves some day in the front ranks of their pro- 
fession. 

Many of the books on " Notes of Lessons " are 
simply crutches to help the lame to walk. Young 
teachers require wise instruction, judicious advice, 
and encouraging words of sympathy, to teach them 
how to walk without crutches. 

In the following chapters, advice, and information, 
and hints on matter and method are presented to 
the young teacher as freely and candidly as a master 
would teach his pupil. If these hints are accepted 
and adopted, they cannot fail to produce beneficial 
results. 



10 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 

A lesson is literally a " gathering " of information 
(L. ledum, to gather). 

It is a term used to describe a conversational method 
of imparting information that is highly complex in its 
character, and more easy to illustrate than define. 

I. A Lesson is not a Lecture. 

A lecture is an attempt to convey instruction by 
discourses. A multitude of facts and figures may be 
given by the speaker. He may clearly express his 
own opinions, and state the general results of his own 
investigation and inquiry. But if he neglects to fix 
information in the minds of his hearers by questions 
and tests of personal application, he is not enabling 
them to gather information for themselves. He must 
present his facts, and arrange them so that the pupils 
can arrive at the conclusions by their own reasoning. 
He must insist on the pupils acquiring, and under- 
standing, and retaining, and applying the information 
with which he supplies them. So that a lesson is a 
method of instruction more powerful, and impressive, 
and valuable, than a lecture, or a sermon, or a speech. 



THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 11 

II. A Lesson is not a Series of Questions. 

Socrates the Greek philosopher was a master of 
the art of questioning. Without affirming any propo- 
sition, or milking any statement, or expressing any 
opinion, he would lead his pupils to any conclusion 
he desired by a series of questions. His aim was to 
make his pupils discover truths for themselves. Each 
answer given was used as a means of attaining a further 
result. He held the opinion that a wise teacher should 
expose the ignorance of his pupils by searching ques- 
tions, and lead them to supply their lack of knowledge 
by the same method. Where skilful questions lead 
to successive steps of reasoning, and help children to 
arrive at a correct conclusion, they have a great edu- 
cational value. But it is necessary to state facts, and 
give illustrations, and adduce reasons before children 
are in a position to answer some questions. The chief 
value of questioning is to test the amount of informa- 
tion pupils possess, to expose to them their own igno- 
rance, and to awaken a desire for more knowledge. 
So that while questions may be profitably and wisely 
used in every lesson, they are not to take the place of 
exposition, or illustration, or experiment. 

III. Exposition must have a Prominent Place 

ix Every Lesson. 

By the term exposition, I mean a statement of facts 
in their simplest forms — literally, "a setting out" 
(L. position, to set). This statement of facts must 



12 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

remove all difficulties, and give the children a full, 
clear, and comprehensive view of the subject. It may 
take the form of — 

1. Explanation (L. planus, even). — Figuratively the 
path of knowledge may be beset with difficulties. 
There are mountains to climb, valleys to descend, and 
rivers to cross. A skilful teacher must bring down 
the mountains, and till up the valleys, and bridge the 
rivers. He must make the path plain and even by 
timely and wise explanation. Everything in a lesson 
that the children do not understand must be set out 
and made plain. They must not be permitted to ad- 
vance one step in doubt or obscurity. There is a 
tendency to assume that the children know and fully 
understand things which seem to the teacher very 
simple. And the overlooking of one single link in 
the chain of instruction may damage the whole of the 
workmanship. Hence the importance of a few search- 
ing questions to reveal the true condition of the pupils' 
minds. And when ignorance is discovered, the teacher 
must promptly remove it. He should remember that 
"a lesson is never given till it is received." If he 
fails to make his subject plain, he commits an error 
that no other excellences of his lesson can redeem. 

2. Description (L. scrvptum, to write). — Description 
is copying m words. It is reproducing with the tongue 
what has been seen with the eye of the teacher. The 
clear, bold outlines of forms and figures that present 



THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 13 

themselves to a teacher's mind need to be sketched 
and traced in words, so that the pupil may see them 
as he sees them, and form his own opinion of them. 
Words are the signs of ideas, and by a judicious use 
of suitable language these forms and figures may be 
made to appeal to the imagination and understanding, 
and may live in the memory. But even this valuable 
help to exposition may be abused. It may be too 
lengthy. It may distract the thoughts of the pupils 
from the more important points of the lesson. 

3. Picturing out (L. pictum, to paint). — Picturing 
out is the art of presenting truth in striking colors, and 
giving reality and life to dull, dry facts and figures. 
Thus in a lesson on the " whale," you may describe it 

in words, and give Us Length, and form, and size, in 
clear and plain Language. Or you may picture out 
a whale lying the whole Length of your schoolroom. 
His huge head touches the wall at one end of the room, 
and his tail touches the other end. Open his mouth 
and take out his tongue, and you have a place as large 
as a small class-room. 5Tou may give in a few sen- 
tences a picture that children will understand, and 
appreciate, and remember. 

All these forms of exposition should be studied 
carefully by young teachers, and used as part of their 
tools and stock in trade. It should be the aim of 
every teacher not only to speak so as to In- understood. 
but so that it is impossible to be misunderstood. 



14 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

IV. Illustration is an Important Part of a 
Lesson. 

To illustrate is to throw light upon a subject (L. 
luceo, to shine). Figuratively, the landscape of truth 
is placed before the pupil, and he is asked to admire 
and enjoy it. But its outlines are hazy and indis- 
tinct. The mists and shadows linger in its valleys, 
and the mountain-tops are covered with clouds. But 
the sun rises. The clouds disperse. The shadows 
fly. The landscape stands out in the light, clear, dis- 
tinct, and beautiful. 

Illustration may take the form of example, experi- 
ment, diagram, or analogy. 

1. Example (L. eximo, to take out). — An example 
is a sample or pattern of one taken out of many. The 
teacher is arriving at certain general conclusions from 

a series of facts he has noticed. He may confirm his 
own teaching, and impress it upon the children, by 
calling on them to furnish him with examples. For 
instance, he may arrive at the conclusion that all 
-animals that chew the cud feed on herbs, have 
cloven hoofs, and are generally horned." He may 
ask the children to give examples and verify in every 
case the truth of his statement. Or he may descend 
from the general to the particular in his teaching, and 
choose a representative case to illustrate and confirm 
his statement. One good example is worth a thousand 
theories. It stands out as a living witness for the 
truth. 



THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 15 

2. Experiment (L. experior, to try). — Aii experi- 
ment is a trial. Its object is to discover something 
unknown, or to establish and confirm what has he. mi 
already discovered. In a lesson on chemistry, or 
electricity and magnetism, for example, experiment 
must have a very prominent place. It would be im- 
possible to state in words all that can be shown by 
experiment. And the actual test has a lore.' and con- 
viction of truthfulness that language could not con- 
vey. Wherever an experiment can be successfully 
and quickly performed in presence of the pupils, it 
should be adopted as one of the most powerful expe- 
dients at a teacher's command. 

3. Diagram or Picture. — Pictures appeal to the eye, 

and help the mind to realize the tacts of the case 
more readily than mere words. They maybe printed 
and mounted on sheets as maps, or they may be 
sketched by the teacher on a blackboard. The art 
of using a blackboard and chalk skilfully should be 
acquired by young teachers. It is a valuable aid to 
instruction, and saves many words and much time. 

4. Analogy. — Analogy points out features of like- 
ness in some respects between things thai otherwise 
differ. Thus a bird and a fish differ in many respects, 
and yet, for the sake of illustration by analogy, seve- 
ral points of resemblance suggesl themselves. The 
tail, tor example, is used as a rudder, and steers the 

bird through th ran of air, as it steers the fish 

through the ocean of water. The wing, again, pro- 



16 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

pels and helps to guide and steady the bird, as the 
fin performs a similar service for the fish. Examples 
might be multiplied, but the young teacher will see 
the value of this form of illustration, and will find in 
it a powerful aid to success. 

All these forms of illustration are within every 
teacher's reach. They will arrest attention, and carry 
conviction, and produce permanent results. 

V. A Lesson must produce Practical Results. 

By a judicious mixture of questioning, and exposi- 
tion, and illustration, the teacher must make an im- 
pression on his pupils that will be real and abiding. 
I have indicated resources of strength that should 
enable him to overcome all difficulties, and produce 
the best practical results. 

1. Knowledge must be imparted. — New truths must 
be learned and understood. The area of the pupil's 
mental vision must be enlarged and expanded. He 
must be richer in his stores of knowledge, and the 
lesson must result in a clear and decided gain of in- 
formation. A conscientious teacher will insist on 
each lesson aiming at giving every child a step on- 
ward and upward in the path of knowledge. 

2. Intelligence must be awakened. — It is often very 
difficult to awaken thought, and arouse intelligent 
activity. Children do many things mechanically, and 
remember facts by the effect of repetition. A great 
result is grained when a teacher can "set them think- 



THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A LESSON. 17 

ing." If he can provoke thought he stimulates in- 
quiry, and arouses curiosity, and calls into activity the 
highest mental faculties. A glorious victory has been 
won when apathy and indifference, and purely mechan- 
ical efforts, have been crushed, and when children can be 
induced to take an intelligent interest in their lessons. 

3. Good moral effects must be produced. — The dis- 
cipline of a school greatly depends on the quality of 
the teaching. Instruction that is thorough, and pains- 
taking, and conscientious, and intelligent, will stamp 
its own likeness on the children. They will catch the 
energy, and force, and fire of the teacher. They will 
breathe his spirit, and copy his example, and bear his 
likeness. On the other hand, teaching that is cold, 
and lifeless, and aimless, and unattractive, will de- 
press and damage the children. They will form 
habits of inattention, indolence, and indifference. It 
is of the utmost importance, therefore, that the man- 
ner as well as the matter of the instruction should 
receive attention. 

A good teaelier will make an attractive and useful 
lesson out of very very poor materials, and a bad 
teacher will make a worthless lesson out of the best 
materials. There is no profession in which so much 
depends on the tact and skill of the workman. 

Having pointed out the essential features of ales- 
son, we now proceed to consider the plan of a lesson. 

We have answered the question, What is a lesson ? 
and must now consider how to give a lesson. 



18 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 

Every lesson must be wisely introduced, clearly 
arranged, and practically applied. 

I. Introduction. 

1. The subject should be introduced attractively. — 

You will not attempt to begin the lesson till you have 
perfect quietness and can command the attention of 
the children. The first few minutes of the lesson will 
be your golden opportunity, and must be wisely im- 
proved. If you can awaken interest, or excite curi- 
osity, or enlist sympathy during that brief period, 
the rest of your task will be comparatively easy. But 
if your own manner is dull and drowsy, if your mat- 
ter is dry and uninteresting, or if you begin to depre- 
ciate your own abilities, or make any apologies, you 
will destroy all chances of success. Your aim is to 
gain attention that you may keep it throughout the 
lesson. Study therefore to create a favorable impres- 
sion at first by presenting your subject the best side 
out. 

2. The subject should be introduced simply. — It is 

sometimes necessary to recall a previous lesson and 



THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 19 

refer to what lias been said before, for the sake of 
gathering up facts and conclusions that may serve 
you now. But nothing should be mentioned that will 
not help to concentrate attention on your subject, or 
illustrate and enforce your teaching. Lengthy intro- 
ductions are always to be avoided. They distract 
attention by leading the children to think of foreign 
matters, and they waste precious time. Choose the 
most direct introduction you can find, and plunge into 
your subject without apologies. 

3. The subject should be introduced easily. — If it is 
entirely new to the children, you might mention some 
other subject with which they are familiar that is 
either very much like it, or in striking contrast 
with it. Y<>ur purpose may sometimes be served 
by comparing things like and contrasting things 
different. Find out what they know by a searching 
question or two. Start from the level of their 
knowledge, and proceed to make them wiser by your 
teaching. 

Never "train out" a subject, or ask them to guess 
it. I heard a young teacher trying to "train out" 
the word "sugar." He began by telling the children 
that as he came down the street lie passed a shop 
window and saw something that was to be the subject 
of his lesson. The children guessed bread, boots, 
pictures, fish, tea, butter, tripe, beef, bacon, etc., and 
at last one said " sugar." In this case no good end 



20 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

was served by these answers, valuable time was 
wasted, and much disorder occasioned. 

II. Arrangement. 

1. The subject should be arranged logically. — The 
true starting-point of all teaching is the level of what 
your children know. Having discovered that, place 
them in a position to increase their wealth of knowl- 
edge, and teach them how to use their facts logically. 
If you have an effect and wish to find a cause, throw 
all the light on the subject you are able, and patiently 
work till you have discovered it. But there must be 
no confusion of cause with effect, or conduct with 
motive. You must produce facts and give information 
to enable your pupils to arrive at some new conclusion 
beyond their present attainments. But these facts 
and conclusions must be stated in the order of their 
dependence upon each other. 

Take the following examples of logical arrangement, 
and observe that each fact is the result of observation 
that may be verified by experiment at any time. Re- 
member also that these results are uniform and un- 
varying, so that we can deduce from the facts a law 
that never changes. Having the fact and the law 
clearly made known, we can apply our new knowledge 
to various useful calculations and contrivances. The 
logical order of fact, law, and application will illus- 
trate the value of the arrangement suggested. 



THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 



21 



">. With a single glass (as eyeglass, 
sun-glass, etc.) we can greatly increase 
the light and heat. 


4. A prism or lens will show seven dif- 
ferent colors, as in a rainbow, when only 
one white ray falls on it. 


3. Millions of rays of light will pass 
through a hole as small as the point of a 
needle if pricked in cardboard, etc. 


2. If an obstacle be placed between the 
light of a candle and ourselves, we can- 
not see the light. 


FACT. 

1. The sun is nearly 90 millions of 
miles distant from tlie earth; yet light 
travels the distance in eight minutes. 


5. The light of the 

sun may be collected 
into one point. 


4. Every white ray 
consists of seven pri- 
mary colors. 


3. The particles of 
light are exceedingly 
small. 


2. Light always ra- 
diates and moves in 
Straight lines. 


I. AW. 

1. Light travels 12 
millions of miles in a 
minute. 


5. Burning- glasses 

arc formed on this prin- 
ciple. 


4. We can make 
lenses, mirrors, etc., 
for beautiful illustra- 
tions of this law. 


3. We can concen- 
trate the light in lenses 
and tubes. 


2. Choose a central 
and prominent position 
for your lights. 


APPLICATION. 

1. We can ascertain 
the distances of the 
plan. 



22 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

2. The subject should be arranged correctly and 
naturally. — No "definite law of arrangement can be 
stated that will apply to all cases and meet all circum- 
stances. You must be guided by your own judgment 
in the end, but hints and suggestions may help you to 
a right and wise conclusion. 

Like a wise master-builder, you must make sure of 
your ground first. Lay a good foundation. Measure 
and contrive your walls, doors, and windows. Build 
wisely, prudently, and patiently, till the roof is com- 
pleted and the windows are fixed. Do not worry about 
the roof till you have secured the foundation. Let the 
chimneys alone till you have built the walls. 

There is a natural order of proceeding with every- 
thing. First the seed, then the blade, then the stalk, 
then the flower and fruit, then the harvest. Follow 
this natural order of dealing with your lessons. Do 
not invert nature's order, but imitate it, and make it 
a source of strength to you. 

In giving a history lesson, for instance, on the life 
and character of any man, you may gather up the 
leading events of his life. You may present these 
actions and indicate his motives. If the life is plainly 
sketched, the man's character will be accurately judged 
by your pupils. 

In giving a geography lesson on any river, you may 
describe its surroundings. You may show the char- 
acter of the mountains near it, the extent of its gather- 
ing ground ; and if you give the children sufficient 
data to form an accurate estimate of the causes at 
work, they will give you the general results. 



THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 23 

It is most important that your arrangement should 
be correct. A single false statement may lead to a 
false conclusion, just as a single worthless plank may 
sink a fine ship. Verily every fact before you make 
use of it. Turn to your notes or 3-our books of refer- 
ence if you have any doubts. A teacher is utterly 
worthless when he ceases to be accurate. 

3. The subject should be arranged clearly. — You 
need not indicate the arrangement of your lesson to 
the children ; you must avoid the firstly, secondly, and 
thirdly of sermon-makers. But there must be a me- 
thodical treatment of your subject that omits nothing, 
and gives due prominence to each part of the lesson. 
The different stages or divisions of the lesson should 
follow each other logically and naturally ; they should 
be crisp, (dear, and complete in their treatment of the 
subject. " It is a great art to give clearness and system 
to the body of the lesson without obtruding the divisions 
too nakedly" Keep this aim steadily before you, and 
with patience and practice you will learn one of the 

most valuable secivts of your profession. 

III. Application. 

1. The application should be short and clear. — In a 
few well-chosen sentences you should review the whole 

lesson, and bring into prominence the general results. 
Many things you have said will be forgotten, but if 
your lesson is a success it will add to their stork of 
information, it will leave them wiser than it found 



24 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

them, and they will apply the principles they have 
understood. Two or three minutes spent in a power- 
ful recapitulation of the leading points of your lesson 
will be of immense service to the pupils. 

2. The application should be testing. — You may vary 
the form of your words and sentences so as to put the 
information in different aspects, and satisfy yourself 
that your teaching is successful. The great test of a 
successful lesson is the amount of information that 
the children retain. Nothing can be more distressing 
to a conscientious teacher than a conviction that he 
has been laboring in vain. Bring your work to the 
test of careful scrutiny. By a few earnest, direct, 
searching questions, find out how much of the lesson 
remains in their minds. 

3. The application should be practical. — The aim of 

all teaching is to make us wiser, and stronger, and 
more powerful for good. Each lesson should instruct, 
and lead, and encourage the children to better and 
higher aims. All that is base, and mean, and selfish, 
and wrong must be unsparingly condemned. All that 
is noble, and true, and good must be fostered and en- 
couraged. The meanest task a teacher can attempt 
is honorable if it makes one poor child wiser, or 
stronger, or braver, or better. Many devoted teachers 
have spent their lives, and denied themselves many of 
life's enjoyments, in battling against ignorance, vice, 
superstition, bigotry, and crime ; and many more are 



THE PLAN OF A LESSON. 25 

entering the same noble, self-denying army. They 
have not only bad habits to conquer and subdue, but 
they must cultivate a thirst for knowledge, a love of 
self-denial and self-culture, a determination to rise in 
the world to a position of usefulness and honor, and 
a willingness to work for the good of others. 

No work on earth can be more honorable or impor- 
tant. Amid conflicting opinions and warring interests, 
let us be pure in our aims and faithful to our purpose. 
Let us be practical. 

Our names may die, but our deeds will live; 
We shall leave some marks behind us. 



26 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 

The raw materials of which a lesson must be con- 
structed are information and illustration. 

I. Information (L. forma, shape) is the act of put- 
ting facts into convenient shape. We must carry about 
with us everywhere a large amount of knowledge, and 
it is the duty of the teacher to present it in a conven- 
ient form, that it may always be at our service. 

1. It must be full and accurate. — All the facts that 
children ought to know should be stated fully, clearly, 
and without reserve. No material truth should escape 
notice or be kept back. A common error into which 
young teachers fall is that of supposing that because 
they know a thing, therefore everybody must know. 
The consequence is that many important statements 
are purposely omitted. The opposite error is that of 
telling the children too much. 

Be quite sure that your information is correct. If 
you have any haziness or uncertainty about your facts, 
verify them by a reference to standard text-books and 
notes. The schoolroom is not the place to display 
your ignorance, and if you are in doubt about your in- 
formation, the lesson will be a feeble, halting failure. 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 27 

2. It must be digested. — Your lesson must be the 
result of much reading, and labor, and thought. It 
matters not where your facts came from or how you 
obtained them. Knowledge is common property, and 
you have as much right to it as to the sunshine or the 
rain. But you must master your facts, and appropri- 
ate them to your own use, and make them serve your 
purpose. You must not reproduce them in the frag- 
mentary, haphazard way you found them. You can- 
not commit them to memory and recite them. You 
cannot safely trust to memory, or notes, or books. 
You must convert the facts to your own use. 

As the food you eat is digested, and becomes blood, 
and muscle, and bone, and helps to sustain and prolong 
life ; so the facts you glean must be understood and 
applied to give intellectual nourishment and strength. 

Or, to change the figure, you are in want of money 
to pay your way. I show you a mine where nuggets 
and grains of gold are to be won by hard labor. You 
must gather them, put them into the crucible, melt, 
refine, mould, and stamp them with your own image 
and superscription. Do not try to pass off another 
man's coin as your own. 

This secret can only be discovered by continued 
effort and steady labor. 

3. It must be graphic. — It must appeal to the intel- 
lect. It must catch the eye and win the ear. It must 
be attractive and telling. 

Two men will speak on the same subject with equal 



28 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

knowledge, but with different results. One will pour 
a mass of information on his hearers, and read to them 
long extracts from books, and take great pains to make 
himself clearly understood. He will go into minute 
details, and descend to particulars. He will speak for 
an hour, and utterly weary everybody. If you could 
question the audience you would find that his speech 
had made no impression for good. It had been stale, 
flat, and unprofitable. 

But the second speaker arranged his facts and con- 
densed his information into two or three strong points. 
He presents his case clearly and intelligently, and 
advocates it warmly. He speaks deliberately, power- 
fully, and convincingly. He arrests attention, he 
evokes sympathy, he commands approval, and he 
rouses and stimulates his audience to a high pitch of 
enthusiasm. In half an hour he has stated his case, 
produced a profound impression, and the memory of 
that speech will live for years. 

Seek the power to seize upon the strong points of 
your subject. Describe events with force and accu- 
racy. Delineate with boldness and skill. Paint in 
striking colors. If there is any real power in you, 
dare to be singular. 

4. It must be adapted to your circumstances. — (1) 
Consider the time at your disposal. — Half an hour will 
be abont an average length of time for a good lesson. 
Do not attempt too much. Condense your matter and 
concentrate your thoughts on a few strong features of 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 29 

the subject. Make it incisive and telling. A modern 
humorist has compared public speaking to boring in 
an oil cask. He says that if you are boring three- 
quarters of an hour and fail to strike oil, you are either 
boring in the wrong place, or you are using very bad 
tools. 

(2) Consider the capacity of the children. — Your 
matter must be made very plain and simple if you are 
teaching children. It must be increased in quantity 
and varied in quality if you are speaking to senior 
scholars. One of the philosophers uses the allegory 
of a small bottle with a narrow neck being filled at a 
pump. If you pump heavily and pour out a large vol- 
ume of water, most of it runs down the sides of the 
bottle. You must adapt the stream to the capacity of 
the bottle, if you would fill it easily. In other words, 
you must present your information in such quantities 
and forms as young minds can absorb and retain it 
best. 

(3) Consider the nature of the subject. — If it is 
simple, you will need fewer illustrations than if it 
is complex. If it is elementary, you can make more 
rapid progress than if it is advanced. Decide in your 
own mind the nature of the work you have set before 
you, then adopt the expedients that will enable you 
most effectually to carry it to a successful issue. 

II. Illustration (L. luceo, to shine) is the act of 
throwing light on a subject. Illustrations may be given 
by words, by pictures, or by objects. 



30 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

1. By words. — You may compare your subject with 
another of a similar kind by a simile, or a metaphor, 
or an allegory . 

A simile is a comparison which is limited to one point. 
Thus, in the phrase " the light of truth," we have light 
and truth compared. They are two widely different 
things, and yet they have one property in common. 
They are both diffusive. You can no more cover 
truth, and limit its area, than you can hide the light 
of the sun. 

A metaphor is a figure of speech by which the name and 
properties of one object are ascribed to another. Thus, 
in the phrase "the clouds of adversity," we compare 
adversity to the clouds. They are different in many 
respects, and yet they have several things in common. 
They come without our control. They serve some 
beneficent purpose. They are gloomy. They are 
temporary. 

An allegory is the representation of one thing by 
another analogous to it. It is a continuous metaphor. 
Perhaps the finest allegory in the English language is 
Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," in which human life 
is compared to a journey. The metaphor is preserved 
throughout, and adapted to all the changing circum- 
stances of life. 

A fable is a common form of allegory. The qualities 
or acts of a higher class of beings are attributed to 
brutes and creatures of a lower sphere. The creatures 
thus introduced always follow the law of their nature, 
but their acts are used to represent those of a higher 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 31 

race. Thus the fables of ^sop represent human mo- 
tives and conduct by the motives and conduct of brutes 
and beasts. This is a most powerful form of illustra- 
tion, but requires great skill to use it successfully. 

A parable is a higher form of allegory. It requires 
thought, and effort, and intelligence to make it plain. 
Its chief purpose is to illustrate and enforce moral and 
religious teaching. The parables of the Old and New 
Testaments are the best examples of this method of 
illustration. 

You may contrast your subject with others that 
differ from it. The mind gathers vividness and clear- 
ness by contrast. This mode of expression is called 
antithesis. 

Antithesis) or placing against, is an opposition of 
thoughts or words that bring out a clear and striking 
rout rust. Thus we speak of "life and death," "peace 
or wax," "honor and shame," ''light and darkness.*' 
These figures of speech require skill and experience to 
use them profitably. 

You may employ anecdote, or emblem, or proverb, 
or any figure of speech or mode of expression that will 
place your subject in a clearer light. The resources 
of the English language are inexhaustible, and they 
are all at your service. Study the art of putting things. 
Vary the illustration, and change the figure till you 
have made a lasting impression. 

2. By pictures. — Let every description be illustrated 
by a picture or sketch on the blackboard. Knowledge 



32 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS- 

comes to a child as readily through the eye as the ear. 
But it comes with great weight and power if both eye 
and ear unite to receive instruction. The power of 
observation is encouraged also. If children can be 
trained to use their eyes intelligently, they will note 
and observe and compare facts for themselves, and 
become successful students. It is a great advantage 
to unlock the stores of knowledge to a child, and place 
the wealth of learning before him. But it is of more 
importance that he should be trained to gather infor- 
mation for himself, and supply his own needs by his 
own efforts. The power of imitation is also called 
forth. Children watch with admiration and delight 
the few bold strokes drawn on a blackboard by an in- 
telligent teacher. They admire the ease and skill with 
which the outlines of a figure are made plain, and they 
are sure to imitate the drawing, and try to reproduce it. 
The poorest child in your class may have latent 
genius slumbering within him, that some light word 
or kindly deed of yours shall call into activity. Who 
knows but in the dullest pupil you have a sleeping 
giant, who shall be roused by your fairy touch ? 

3. By objects. — In some of the best schools I have 
seen cabinets of objects stored by the children and 
teachers for purposes of illustration. Foreign coins, 
and curiosities of dress and fashions from distant 
countries, were to be found side by side with speci- 
mens of minerals, and metals, and fossils, and stones. 
Cotton, wool, flax, and silk were shown in the raw 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF A LESSON. 33 

material, and in every stage of manufacture. The 
special productions of the neighborhood were repre- 
sented in every variety and form. The children were 
familiar with every kind of manufacture, and left the 
school to become intelligent and superior workmen. 
They were trained to habits of observation and inves- 
tigation, and in after-life they became successful stu- 
dents of botany, or geology, or some other favorite 
science, and skilful in the use of the microscope or 
other scientific apparatus. 

(1) Use illustrations to impress what is new on the 
children's minds. — In teaching a class of young chil- 
dren to read, the word shallow occurred, and no one 
could tell me the meaning. I contrasted a cup and 
saucer, and asked them to tell me the difference. They 
told me a cup was deep, but a saucer was " not deep." 
I asked them to use the word shallow instead of the 
words not deep, and they remembered its meaning in 
connection with the saucer. The illustration was val- 
uable because it was familiar. 

(2) Use illustrations to impart interest and give 
reality to a subject. — One hot day I had to teach the 
properties of a circle, and show how to find the area 
if the radius was stated. It was a dry, tedious lesson 
in mensuration, and required some expedient to arouse 
the flagging interest. I represented the centre of the 
circle as a post. The radius became a rope tied at 
one end, and stretched out to the circumference. It 
only required another stretch of imagination to tie a 
donkey so that it should feed on an acre of ground, 



34 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

and no more. This vivid and appropriate illustration 
served my purpose, and sustained the attention of the 
children. 

(3) Use illustrations to meet and remove particular 
difficulties. — A model, or a picture, or a diagram, or 
a sketch on the blackboard, will often make plain what 
would otherwise remain obscure. A wise teacher 
will use every opportunity of these powerful aids to 
instruction. 



THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 35 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 

The success of a lesson greatly depends on the per- 
sonal bearing of a teacher, and the fertility of his 
resources. 

I. His Personal Bearing. 

By his personal bearing is meant the " way he carries 
himself." This part of the subject can be more easily 
illustrated than defined. 

Suppose a skilful teacher is about to give a lesson 
to a group of children. We are to stand aside, and 
observe, and criticise. Let us notice his attitude, his 
voice, his temper and spirit. 

1. Attitude. — In approaching the children he takes 
up a commanding position. He stands where he can 
see every child, and where all can see him. His ex- 
perienced eye sweeps round the group instantly, and 
sees everything at a glance. He arrests and commands 
attention. 

His movements are easy and natural. He is neither 
fussy nor awkward. His materials and illustrations 
are in order, so that he can point to a map or a pic- 



36 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

ture, or draw a sketch on the blackboard, without 
breaking the continuity of his lesson. 

He is free from affectation. He seeks to make his 
lesson useful rather than showy. He has no tricks of 
style. He does not imitate other men's looks or ges- 
tures, but modestly and quietly gives his own lesson 
in his own way. 

He commands the respect of the children. They 
see in him nothing to condemn, but many things to 
admire. There is a soberness and dignity about his 
behavior they are compelled to acknowledge and 
respect. 

2. Voice. — He speaks in a cheerful tone. While 
his voice is loud enough to be heard by every child, 
there is no waste of strength by shouting or using too 
much force. He avoids a harsh and scolding tone. 
His voice is carefully modulated and well managed. 
He speaks kindly, gently, and effectively. 

His articulation is clear. Every syllable is dis- 
tinctly uttered. He avoids drawling on the one hand, 
and gabbling on the other. He speaks deliberately, 
clearly, and distinctly. 

He pronounces his words correctly. He avoids 
provincialisms. He makes no grammatical blunders. 
His language is pure and correct, and serves as an ex- 
cellent pattern that the children may safely imitate. 

3. Temper and spirit. — He is energetic. From the 
beginning of the lesson to the end the interest never 



THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 37 

falters. There is no listlessness, no apathy, no indif- 
ference. You can see that he is in earnest, and his 
energy is infectious. The children catch his spirit, 
and are roused by his example. The force and power 
of his energy carry all before them. He succeeds 
where a quieter man would fail. And much of his 
success in life is due to the energy and force of his 
character. 

He is sympathizing. He recognizes children's diffi- 
culties and discouragements. He remembers that he 
was once a child, and had to contend with a child's 
trials and sorrows. He is able to enter into their 
views and feelings. He knows exactly how to help 
them. If they are disheartened by failure, he can 
rouse them to renewed effort. If they are unkindly 
treated, he will protect them. He recognizes every 
good quality, and gives it a word of praise. He de- 
fends the weak from the tyranny of the strong. He 
is the children's friend, and they know that he will 
pity and help them when they are needing sym- 
pathy. 

He is attractive. He seldom loses the attention of 
the children. He rarely threatens and seldom pun- 
ishes. A look or a hint will usually suffice to bring 
a thoughtless child up to its duty promptly. He 
finds it much easier to draw than to drive. As 
honey attracts more flies than vinegar, so a good 
temper and a cheerful spirit will gain more love 
than peevishness or sourness. His good temper 
and kindly spirit win the admiration of his pupils, 



38 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

and make the lesson run smoothly and agreeably to 
its close. 

Let us now consider — 

II. His Resources. 

As the lesson proceeds we begin to see what large 
and varied resources are at the teacher's command. 
He is like a plain, unassuming merchant who would 
pass for a poor man, but who has a large capital and 
a valuable stock in trade. It is only as he needs these 
resources that he makes them public. 

1. Language. — He speaks with fluency. He never 
falters or hesitates for a word. He is able to choose 
the word that will most clearly express his meaning, 
and can always put the right word in the right place. 
His language is choice, and varied, and expressive. 

He speaks correctly. He seldom calls back a word 
after he has uttered it. He not only avoids grammati- 
cal mistakes and errors of pronunciation, but he never 
offends good taste. He uses words well and wisely, 
to express his meaning clearly and fully. 

His language is simple. He uses words that can be 
understood by the youngest child, and yet they are 
not silly or childish. They are clear and dignified. 
He calls things by their right names. He describes 
things in plain, vigorous words. 

It is impossible to estimate the value of such a com- 
mand of language. The English language is so full, 
and rich, and expressive, that it can describe every 



THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 39 

conceivable position and circumstance. And the 
teacher who is master of his own mother-tongue is 
well equipped for his duties. 

2. Apparatus. — The children of this generation 
have enormous advantages over their parents. And 
the teachers of the present day are richer than those 
who preceded them. Patent desks, blackboards, good 
maps, pictures, and diagrams, cheap slates, books, 
paper, pens and ink, are to be found in every school 
to-day. A generation ago many of these aids to in- 
struction were utterly unknown. Some of them existed, 
but they were so poor in quality, and so high in price, 
that they were of little service to the teacher. 

The teacher of the present day knows the value 
of scientific apparatus. He is quick to seize on any 
thought or figure that will illustrate his teaching. 
He makes diagrams, pictures, maps, objects, and 
specimens familiar to the eye, and thus enforces and 
impresses information on the mind. He readily ap- 
plies any new thought or clearer light that may come 
to his mind. He is skilful in drawing on the black- 
board any figure that may be helpful to the children. 
He neglects no opportunity of calling in any method 
of illustration that will save time and economize 
labor. 

3. Questioning. — The teacher makes a skilful use 
of questions. If a child becomes careless, a direct 
personal question arrests his attention, and provokes 



40 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

thought. If a child is too confident, a question reveals 
his ignorance and points out his weak places. 

These questions are never suggestive. They can 
never be answered by a " yes " or " no." They are 
problems requiring thought. They call for a prompt, 
a wise, and a definite answer. 

They are distributed impartially. They come to the 
heedless, and restless, and thoughtless, at most incon- 
venient times. They cannot be ignored. They must 
be answered, or disgrace and exposure will overtake 
the delinquent. 

In the hands of a judicious teacher, the power of 
wise questioning must have a high educational value. 

4. Discipline. — The teacher can maintain order. 
He checks inattention and restlessness promptly. He 
will not allow the eyes to wander or the thoughts to 
stray from his subject. He is prepared at all times 
to enforce his own authority and compel obedience. 
But he forbears threatening, and rules by wise and firm 
discipline. 

He secures mental activity. It is impossible for any 
child to take part in his lesson without being made to 
think, and compelled to reflect and try to understand 
the subject. He appeals to eye, and ear, and under- 
standing. He rouses, and stimulates, and directs the 
mental powers. He makes every child think and act, 
and directs their thoughts and actions to a wise and 
practical purpose. 

It is clear, therefore, that a good teacher has enor- 



THE MANNER OF THE TEACHER. 41 

mous resources at his command. But in order that he 
may make a wise and extensive use of them, he must 
have peculiar skill in adapting himself to his circum- 
stances. It is evident that an untrained teacher would 
be unable to use them successfully. Let us consider 
how this peculiar skill may be acquired. 



42 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



CHAPTER V. 

TACT. 

In the preparation and delivery of a lesson, the 
young teacher will need tact. 

Tact (L. tactus, touch) is peculiar skill in adapting 
ourselves to circa instances. 

It is a power that is not easily defined or lightly 
acquired. It is one of the most valuable secrets of 
the profession, and should be sought and prized more 
than gold. It requires presence of mind, keen percep- 
tive powers, ingenuity, promptness to seize an advan- 
tage, and a good address. 

1. Presence of mind. — A teacher should never be 
thrown off his guard by any unforeseen circumstance. 
He should never be taken unawares by any disaster 
or disappointment. Other people may be nervous and 
excited, but he must always have; his wits about him. 
Others may use random words and do unwise things, 
but he should keep cool, and know exactly what to 
do. and do it at the most convenient time. He should 
never lose his self-possession and self-control, but 
maintain under the most trying circumstances his 
calmness and confidence. 



TACT. 43 

He can only do this by self-denial and discipline. 
He must learn to "rule his own spirit," and he will 
have gained a greater victory than " he that taketh a 

city." 

2. Keen perceptive powers. — A teacher must have 
eyes that see everything at a glance, and comprehend 
all the circumstances in a moment. He must have 
ears that catch the faintest indication of change or 
movement. He must have a delicacy of touch that 
will enable him to feel and understand the intellectual 
and moral atmosphere in which he moves. He must 
be able to tell whether his teaching makes any impres- 
sion on the children or not. Be must find out intui- 
tively the weak and strong points of his lesson. He 
must be able to note instinctively every circumstance 
in his favor, and every difficulty he must surmount. 
Nothing must escape his notice. He must be quick 
to see, prompt to understand, and keen and clever in 
supplying a remedy for every emergency. 

Just as the practised eye of a sailor discerns a sail 
on the distant horizon where a simple landsman would 
fail to see anything, so he must note what a stranger 
would overlook. As the trained ear of a musician 
would detect one false chord in the music where a 
novice would fail to notice it, so he must be able to 
discover what others would not even suspect. 

These powers can be acquired only by continued 
exercise and careful training. 



44 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

3. Ingenuity. — The best-laid plans will sometimes 
fail. The most promising schemes will occasionally 
end in disaster and disappointment, The tools we 
thought would serve us best will now and then spoil 
the work and wound our hands ; but a teacher who 
possesses tact will never throw down his tools in de- 
spair. He will never say fail. Out of the materials 
of his failure and disappointment he will somehow 
manage to serve his purpose and carry his scheme. 
By his ready mother-wit he will be saved from stick- 
ing fast in every slough of despond. By his power of 
ready invention he will make a bridge when retreat is 
cut off, and save his reputation when all seemed to be 
lost. By his quickness in combining ideas, and his 
skill in using them, he will prove himself a workman 
that needeth not to be ashamed. 

We have seen in the preceding chapter the enormous 
resources at the command of a teacher, and the great 
value of his stock-in-trade. By ingenuity he may 
make them all contribute to his success, and promote 
his own advancement. 

Ingenuity is partly natural and partly acquired. 
Like every other mental power, it may be stimulated 
and improved by cultivation and exercise. 

4. Fromptness to seize an advantage. — In teaching, 
as in all other human affairs, there arc golden oppor- 
tunities that now and then fall in our way. We have 
only to stretch out the hand and seize them, and hold 
them fast, to make them our own. If we neglect to 



TACT. 45 

seize them at the right moment, they will drift away 
from us on the ebbing tide, and be lost to us forever. 

By the exercise of tact we may save ourselves from 
loss and disappointment. We may take advantage of 
every tide and current that will serve our purpose. 
We may catch and use every breeze that will aid our 
progress. But there must be no hesitation. He who 
hesitates is lost. 

Opportunity is the forelock of time. Father Time 
is represented as an old man with a scythe and hour- 
glass. He has a venerable beard, but his head is bald, 
except one single prominent lock on his forehead. If 
we mean to get any good out of him, we must be ready 
as he passes to seize that lock of hair, and make him 
do our bidding. If we let him pass a moment, we 
need not clutch at the back of his bald head, for there 
is nothing to hold him by. Once lost may be lost for- 
ever. 

Make hay while the sun shines. Strike while the 
iron is hot. Be prompt to seize every advantage. 

5 A good address. — A teacher must seek to make 
himself agreeable. He cannot win the confidence and 
respect of his pupils, or gain their esteem and affec- 
tion, without attending to the courtesies and acts of 
kindness that beget esteem and respect. He must pre- 
serve his own dignity and self-respect. He must be 
clean and neat in person. He must be gentlemanly 
and courteous in behavior. He must be a pattern of 
integrity, honesty, and uprightness. But he must not 



46 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

be cold, and hard as an iceberg. He must have a tender 
heart and a kindly sympathy. He must be attentive 
to the needs, and difficulties, and trials of his pupils. 
He must give them the opportunity of knowing, and 
trusting, and loving him. He must occasionally un- 
bend himself, and throw off his official reserve, and 
approach them kindly. He must gain the power of 
personal friendship, and be able to guide, and mould, 
and influence their characters for good. 

He must study the art of putting things. He must 
make truth agreeable. He must habitually present 
facts in such attractive forms that he can always com- 
mand eager and willing hearers. He must cultivate a 
love of learning. The feeblest effort to gain informa- 
tion should have his approval and smile. And if he 
sees a child struggling with difficulties, and manfully 
striving to master some difficult task, he must aid it 
by kindly sympathy and wise counsel. A word fitly 
spoken may sometimes influence the whole of a child's 
future life. A new way of putting an old truth will 
often impress that truth on the mind forever. An 
original illustration, or a quaint and humorous com- 
parison, will frequently make a truth plain when all 
other modes of presenting it had failed. 

Young teachers should cultivate their talents by 
exercise, and observation, and self-denial, and disci- 
pline. Is is only as we conquer our tempers, our natu- 
ral dispositions, and inclinations, and habits, that we 
can rule our own spirits. 



TACT. 47 

We may learn much from books and from teachers, 
but we may learn more from observation and experi- 
ence. A young soldier may learn to drill, and march, 
and use his weapons in the barracks for years ; but 
one short campaign, in which he helps to defeat the 
enemy, will teach him more than years of drilling. 

So in teaching; we may give hints, and information, 
and advice, but it is only by actual experiment that 
the full value of our instruction can be appreciated. 

We have now answered the questions, " What is a 
lesson ? " and " How should a lesson be given ? " We 
believe that any young teacher may become success- 
ful by diligent and intelligent application. Let us 
now consider " How a lesson should be prepared." 



48 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 

Many books have been published during the last 
few years containing full notes of lessons. These 
notes are valuable, because they contain facts in a 
condensed and convenient form, and provide methods 
of illustration suggested by practical teachers. They 
save much time in reading, comparing, grouping, and 
arranging facts ; but they are of little practical use to 
young teachers. 

A young teacher should not be furnished with a per- 
fect example and merely told to imitate it. He should 
be trained to select his own materials and finish the 
work on well-defined principles. 

The builder's apprentice is not taken to a new house 
and told that the walls are of bricks and mortar, the 
floors and rafters of wood, the windows of glass, and 
the roof of slate, and then sent home to construct a 
house for himself. He helps to draw plans and pre- 
pare estimates. He assists in choosing and buying 
bricks, and stone, and timber, and other building ma- 
terials. He takes part in every department of his 
master's work, and gains his knowledge by practical 
experience and labor. 

So a young teacher should be taught to prepare his 
47 



THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 49 

own notes, and construct his own lesson. It will be 
a real kindness to throw him on his own resources 
early in life, and give him the means of providing for 
his own necessities. 

Let us therefore consider the nature and method of 
preparation. 

I. The Nature of Preparation. 

It is a mistake to suppose that the best speakers 
need no preparation. Our most talented actors, act- 
resses, and vocalists never present to the public what 
they have not rehearsed privately repeatedly. Most 
of them have a few stock pieces that they have per- 
formed hundreds of times, in which every tone, look, 
gesture and accent has been carefully studied and 
interwoven with the text. 

Our popular lecturers and orators carefully prepare 
the matter of their discourses, and study every art 
and device that can adorn the style and make it 
attractive. 

Even the pulpit serves to illustrate this truth. No 
great preacher would risk his reputation by preaching 
a sermon that had not cost him hours of labor and 
thought. In many cases the manuscript is read in 
the pulpit. In some cases the manuscript is not pro- 
duced, but every line of it has been committed to 
memory. And in all cases where a preacher hopes 
to gain the public ear, and move popular sympathy, 
lie must devote much time and attention to careful 
preparation. 



50 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

If it is necessary to prepare whatever must catch 
the eye, and gain the ear, and attract the sympathy of 
adults, surely it must be necessary to prepare for the 
instruction of children. 

1. The object of the lesson. — We must have some 
definite aim before us. We must have some practical 
end in view, such as increasing the knowledge of the 
children, or exercising their mental powers, or pro- 
viding for their moral improvement. And we must 
adapt all our means to reach that result. 

An increase of knowledge should be one object of 
every lesson, but it is often necessary to arrange a 
carefully graduated series of lessons, by which chil- 
dren may be led up from one position to another. 
Each lesson in the series gathers up the results of the 
previous lessons, and a iter a careful recapitulation, 
enables the children by natural and easy stages to 
make decided progress. 

The mental powers may be exercised by any lesson 
that will compel them to think and express their 
thoughts intelligently. Mental arithmetic, for ex- 
ample, is an excellent method of sharpening children's 
w r its. Much good often results from object lessons, 
but perhaps the most powerful weapon for breaking 
down mental apathy is the power of skilful question- 
ing. 

Questions of morality often occur in connection with 
school discipline, and valuable truths are illustrated 
and en forced by the common occurrences of every-day 
life. 



THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 51 

A teacher must ask himself: What is the point I 
wish to reach ? Which is the wisest, way to reach it ? 

2. The plan of the lesson. — Having chosen a topic 
that will answer our purpose, we must arrange the 
matter clearly and definitely. We must, bring out the 
leading features of the subject in bold and striking 
colors. We must adapt all the parts of the lesson to 
the end we have in view. In our own thoughts we 
musl be able to see tin- end from the beginning, and 
clearly understand tic relation of all its parts. 

We must decide the method of treatment. This will 
vary according to the subject. 

Analysis) or "taking to pieces," will explain one 
subject best. 

Synthesis^ or '-putting together," will help you to 
understand auol her more readily. 

While a third will need a judicious mixture of 
exposition and illusl ration. 

For example, if I were giving a lesson on a human 
heart, I would buyasheep's heart for the sake of illus- 
tration. I would show its position in the body, and 
briefly explain its functions. Then with a. knife I 
would analyze, or take it t<> pieces. I would expose 

the cavities and valves. I would show their action, 
and compare them with 1 he act ion of tic human heart. 
Analysis would explain and illustrate that subject 
best, and would make it interesting and impressive. 

Synthesis is the opposite of analysis. It gathers 
many scattered particles, and puts them together to 



52 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

build ii}) a conclusion. Thus in the history of a king's 
reign we may note the leading events in the history of 
the time, the causes that are at work to influence par- 
ticular movements, the motives that urge the king to 
certain conduct, and from all these sources form our 
opinion of his character. 

But perhaps the most common form of treatment is 
the judicious mixture of exposition and illustration. 

We must be guided by our own judgment as to the 
mode of treatment, arrangement, and delivery of the 
lesson. No absolute rule of conduct can be devised to 
meet every case. 

3. The matter of the lesson. — In selecting matter, 
the children must guide us. For infants we recpiire 
simple facts and elementary principles, that can be 
readily explained and easily understood. For junior 
classes we require a larger quantity of matter, of a 
more advanced character, and adapted to their ages 
and attainments. For senior classes the matter should 
be more complicated and difficult, with fewer illustra- 
tions, and it should make a greater demand on their 
attention, patience, and intelligence. 

4. The illustration of a lesson. — In providing illus- 
trations, we must also consider the children. Pictures, 
models, objects, and specimens of every kind should 
be used freely among little children. Lessons on form, 
size, and color can only be taught by example and 
illustration, and we should accustom children to an 
inspection of the form, color, and qualities of every 



THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 53 

object around them. But older scholars need more 
verbal illustration. Figures of speech should be freely 
used and explained, especially the figures and emblems 
occurring in poetry. They should also be familiar with 
maps, charts, and diagrams of every kind, and be able 
to make an intelligent use of them. 

All these points must be considered before we com- 
mit our thoughts to paper in the form of notes. 

II. The Method of Preparation. 

1. Text-books. — Use any reliable, trustworthy book 
on the subject of your lesson as a text-book. Gather 
in your memory all the facts it can supply. Do not 
confine your reading to one author, but read several, 
and gather your facts from widely different sources. 
If different authors express different opinions, read 
both sides, and try to form a fair and candid opinion 
of the whole question for yourself. 

The wider your range of knowledge of your subject, 
the better opportunity you will have of presenting it 
attractively. Remember that the first condition of 
successful teaching is, know your subject well. Facts 
are the raw material ; a lesson is the manufactured 
article. 

Text-books are only to be used for obtaining facts. 
Do not seek for method, arrangement, or language from 
them. Trust to other sources for these. 

2. Matter. — The facts you have gleaned from text- 
books are now at your service. You need not try to 



54 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

remember the form or language in which you found 
them, because they will be of little use till you have 
appropriated them and made them your own. If you 
attempt to state facts in another man's language, you 
will be found out and condemned. 

Condense your information into a few definite, con- 
venient, prominent thoughts. Let your matter be 
suitable to the intellectual condition of the children. 
Let it be interesting and graphic. Do not attempt to 
use too much, or introduce anything irrelevant. 

Digest your facts, and verify them by reference to 
the most reliable authors. Arrange your matter to 
the best advantage. Set it out in the most attractive 
style. Make the most of your intellectual capital by 
a wise arrangement and a judicious investment. 

3. Illustration. — Provide more than one illustration 
for the same difficulty. Present truth in various 
aspects and under different forms. A verbal illus- 
tration or explanation may be perfectly clear to one 
mind and obscure to another. Change the figure 
and vary the illustration till the dullest mind per- 
ceives it. 

If you have a choice of illustrations, provide a real 
object instead of a picture. If you cannot obtain a 
specimen or model, of course you must be content with 
a picture. But do not be content with a simple de- 
scription of anything without a picture or diagram to 
illustrate it. If you use the blackboard and chalk, do 
not draw your picture before the lesson, but sketch it 



THE PREPARATION OF A LESSON. 55 

during the lesson, and allow the children to notice your 
every movement. They will be greatly interested, and 
will try to reproduce it afterwards. 

4. Notes. — Take a sheet of note-paper, or use a page 
of an exercise-book for your rough outline notes. Your 
full notes should be entered in a large exercise-book, 
or kept for reference in some permanent form. 

(1) Outline notes. — Gather the facts you intend to 
use into a few brief words and phrases. Compress 
them into small space, and condense them into a few 
leading thoughts expressed in a few simple words. 

Note every particular that you intend to employ, 
and write it in logical order. Keep the different parts 
of your notes separate and distinct, so that when they 
are complete you may run your eye over the page and 
take in the whole at a glance. 

Verify every statement by a reference to your text- 
book, and see that all your figures are accurate. A 
little experience of this kind will enable you to give 
the essence of a book in a few pages. By patient 
practice you may soon be able to classify rough notes, 
and group them into convenient and natural classes, 
so as to give a comprehensive view of any subject. 

(2) Full notes. — You will have greater difficulty 
with full notes, because they require a wider expe- 
rience and riper judgment than most young teachers 
possess. They should include chief heads, condensed 
matter, method, object, class, and time of a lesson. 

The most important points are the heads, matter, 



56 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

and method, which had better be arranged in three 
columns, as in the exercises and examples in this book. 

Under the first head, the chief divisions or parts 
only of a lesson should be stated. 

The second column should contain all the informa- 
tion in the outline notes arranged according to the 
divisions in the first column. 

The third column should contain all the verbal illus- 
trations, introduction, and hints for the teacher. 

Young teachers are advised to study carefully the 
outline notes given in the next chapter, and try to 
imitate them by making notes on other subjects. 



OUTLINE NOTES. 



57 



CHAPTER VII. 

OUTLINE NOTES. 

Outline notes should be brief, comprehensive, and 
clear. In an examination you cannot afford to devote 
many minutes to any particular question, and it is of 
the utmost importance that you should be able to 
express much in little time and space. 

The following subjects are selected from the Gov- 
ernment examination papers, and the outline notes are 
offered as models for imitation. 

It is presumed that every young teacher knows 
enough about the subject to find materials for a use- 
ful lesson. The hints and advice will enable him to 
use his knowledge to the best advantage. 

I. Give Notes of a Lessox ox the Mediterranean 
Ska, its Physical Character and Commer- 
cial Importance, now ani» in Past Times. 

This is a subject peculiarly adapted to Classes 
IV.-VL, and should be studied by the aid of a map 
of the hemispheres and a good bold map of Europe 
(Hughes series). 



58 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA. 

Mediterranean — literally, " the middle of the 
earth ; " so called because ancients believed that all 
the land in the world lay around it. Point out every 
place named on the map. 

1. Physical character. — Large inland sea — 2320 
miles long, 1080 miles broad, nearly 1,000,000 sq. 
miles — bounded X. by Europe, E. by Asi;i. S. by 
Africa, W. by Atlantic, but approached only by the 
Straits of Gibraltar. Land-locked on every side — 
coast broken up into numerous inlets, affording many 
safe harbors — containing important islands belonging 
to many different nations. Water deep — in some 
places over 6000 feet — tides scarcely perceptible — 
seldom 5 feet — subject to peculiar winds, as "solano" 
or "Levanter" — rich in corals, sponges, and other 
fishing industries. 

2. Commercial importance. — Surrounded by coun- 
tries rich in natural productions, and in ancient times 
skilled in arts and manufactures, it gathered 1 he world's 
commerce to itself. From Africa caravans came with 
ivory, ostrich feathers, slaves, gold-dust, etc. From 
Egypt came grain, spices, slaves, etc. From Asia 
came coffee, spices, rich damasks, silks, swords, etc. 
From Europe came grain, cattle, slaves, etc. These 
were gathered and again distributed by Egyptians, 
Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, etc. All 
the great nations of antiquity flourished near it; the 



OUTLINE NOTES. 59 

greatest events in the world's history occurred in its 
vicinity. On its waters the ships of all nations have 
sailed. 

But time has changed its commercial importance. 
The discoveries of Columbus, Vasco di Gama, etc., 
diverted commerce from the shores of the Mediterra- 
nean. Venice, Rome, Carthage, Athens, Alexandria, 
declined as the Dutch, British, Americans, etc., ac- 
quired commercial supremacy. The Suez Canal will 
always be the highway of vessels from Western Europe 
to Asia. Its natural productions, and the productions 
of the lands on its shores, will always be sought and 
acquired, but it can never again regain its ancient 
supremacy. There are peaceful victories yet to be 
won. The Nile must be made the highway to Central 
Africa. Syria, Armenia, etc., must be developed. The 
Volga will contribute some of Russia's enormous food 
supplies, and the Danube will bring Central Europe 
within the influence of Mediterranean commerce. 

II. Wrttk Notes of a Lesson ox Idleness. 

This is a subject applicable to any age or class of 
children. We will adapt it to children from seven to 
nine years of age. 

IDLENESS. 
Idleness = vain and profitless use of time. " He is 
idle who might be better employed." 

1. Nature of idleness. — (1) Dislike for work. — 
Shown in want of attention and application — time 



60 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

wasted in useless trifling — constant change and rest- 
lessness. Describe conduct of a lazy boy in school — 
generally late — always unprepared for his lessons — 
usually full of excuses — lazy people always clever at 
excuses. 

(2) Uselessness. — Never to be trusted unless con- 
stantly watched and urged to duty — needs as much 
driving as a mule — spends in idleness time that others 
spend in study and work. Does no more than he can 
help, and complains all the time. Goes to work un- 
willingly — wastes time thoughtlessly — produces no 
good results. 

" An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless when it goes as when it stands." 

2. Effects of idleness. — (1) Ox the idler himself. 
— Idleness ruins his prospects in life. — All his plans 
will fail — the situation he would like will be given 
to another — his friends will find him out, and be un- 
able to help him. Our prisons, workhouses, asylums, 
and hospitals are filled with idle people who might 
have been doing well. 

Idleness wastes his own powers. — Picture two boys 
leaving school for work. One reads, studies, works 
at his books. The other flings books aside and neglects 
them. In five years one will be wise and clever, the 
other ignorant and helpless. The more we do, the more 
we can do. The less we do, the less we are able to do. 

Idleness impoverishes. — A shabby hat, a torn coat, 
a wretched home, a miserable family, are signs by 



OUTLINE NOTES. 61 

which we may know where idleness dwells. There can 
be no fire without smoke, no idleness without poverty. 

(2) Ox others. — Idleness is infectious. — One lazy 
boy will soon ruin a class. An idle man corrupts a 
workshop, and sometimes spoils a whole street by his 
bad example. 

Idleness demoralizes. — Admit laziness, and you must 
admit other vices. Gambling drunkenness, bad lan- 
guage, dishonesty, and crime will follow. Idleness 
is often the first step to the prison and the gallows. 
Hard work is often a great blessing by keeping men 
out of mischief and danger. 

Beware of the beginnings of evil. Habits of indus- 
try and thoughtfulness contracted now will save us 
from future sorrow and suffering, and help others by 
our example. 

III. Write Notes of a Lessox ox the Railroads 
of Exglaxd. 

Tins subject may be used with advantage in the 
Third Class. It should be illustrated by a large map 
of England (Hughes series). It is an excellent sub- 
ject for combining geographical information with a 
knowledge of the social and commercial benefits con- 
ferred by railroads. 

THE RAILROADS OF ENGLAND. 
Railroads — name given to lines spread over the 
country on which rails are laid for conveying trains. 
Idea of railroads first suggested for carrying coals 



62 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

smoothly and easily in days when roads were rough 
and bad. First trains drawn by horses, then by fixed 
engines, till the locomotive was invented. Watt, 
Stephenson, Newcomen, etc., perfected locomotives, 
and railroads began to be used for public convenience. 

1. The chief lines of railroads. — Those usually take 
their names from the direction in which they run. 

(1) Great Northern starts at King's Cross, London, 
and runs to the north, through Peterborough, Gran- 
tham, Newark, Doncaster, and York, with branches to 
all the large towns in its way. Passengers can go by 
this route to Edinbii¥gh, Perth, Aberdeen, and all parts 
of Scotland. 

(2) Midland starts at St. Pancras, London, and runs 
through the middle of England by way of St. All tans. 
Bedford, Leicester, Nottingham. Derby, Sheffield, 
Leeds, Bradford, Keighley, Skipton, Settle, to Car- 
lisle, and by Lancaster to Morecambe. It has branches 
to Manchester, Liverpool, Bristol, Birmingham, etc. 

(3) London and North-Western starts at Euston, 
London, and runs to the northwest of England by way 
of Rugby, Lichfield, Stafford, Birmingham, Crewe, 
Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, Lancaster, to Carlisle, 
with branches to Holyhead, Leeds, etc. 

(4) Great Western runs from Paddington to the 
west of England, by way of Oxford, Bristol, Bath, 
Gloucester, Cardiff, and South Wales to Milford 
Haven, with branches to Shrewsbury and Devon and 
Cornwall. 



OUTLIKE NOTES. 63 

(5) Great Eastern runs from Cannon Street, London. 
to the east of England, touching Ipswich, Colchester, 
Yarmouth, Norwich. Cambridge and Chelmsford, etc. 

(6) South-Eastern runs from London Bridge to the 
southeast of England, touching Rochester, Canter- 
bury, Maidstone, Dover, etc. 

(7) Lancashire and Yorkshire runs through the 
counties named, from Liverpool to Bolton, Manches- 
ter, Rochdale, Leeds. Wakefield, and Normanton, with 
branches to Southport, Preston, Fleetwood, Blackpool, 
Blackburn, Accrington, Burnley, Colne, Clitheroe, 
Staleybridge, Oldham. Bacup, Bradford, Halifax, etc. 

(8) North-Eastern^ from Normanton and York to 
Berwick-on-Tweed. 

(9) Other lines, such as the London, Chatham, mid 
Dover; the Furness Railroad, from Carnforth to Bar- 
row and Whitehaven; the Manchester, Sheffield, and 
Lincolnshire, from Manchester to Hull and Lincoln; 
the North Staffordshire; and the Metropolitan, in and 
around London, should be pointed out. 

2. The advantages of these railroads. — (1) Every 
part of the country can be reached. Travelling be- 
comes easy, cheap, and rapid. We can breakfast in 
Liverpool, dine in London, and sleep in York on the 
same day. 

(2) Railroads improve the value of land and prop- 
erty where they exist. A new station soon causes a 
new village or town to spring up. Employment is 
found for the poor; all classes derive some benefit. 



64 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

(3) They save time, labor, and money, by enabling 
men to do business more quickly and comfortably. 

(4) They are great educators. We learn geography 
quickly when we are travelling constantly. 

One Inspector of Schools told me that he had set 
the previous question to all the pupil-teachers in his 
district for a whole year, and, to his surprise, it had 
never been answered. He was prepared to award high 
marks to any paper that showed an intelligent acquaint- 
ance with the subject, but it had never even been 
attempted. He accounted for this by a rigid observ- 
ance of text-books among young teachers, and a want 
of familiarity with subjects outside the immediate 
range of the schoolroom. 

IV. Write Notes of a Lesson on Coal. 

This subject is one that can be made interesting to 
young children, so we will adapt our notes to young 
scholars. 

COAL. 
Show a ynece of coal ; ask what it is ; train out its 
properties. 

1. Properties. — Black and bright to the eye — hard 
and brittle to the touch — easily burned by fire. 

2. Where found. — In many parts of the United 
States, England, and in distant countries. Name 
some places, as Pennsylvania, Indiana, Ohio, Ken- 



OUTLINE NOTES. 65 

tucky, Iowa, and Colorado, in the United States ; and 
Newcastle, and parts of Northumberland and Durham, 
in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Staffordshire, South Wales, 
etc., in England. 

Found by boring a hole to a great depth in the earth, 
sinking a shaft, and sending men to dig out the coal 
with pickaxes, spades, etc. 

3. How obtained. — Coal lies in beds or layers under- 
ground. Roads are made as coal is taken out, so that 
men and small horses can bring coal from all parts of 
the mine. These roads are small and dark. Some- 
times men are in danger of being drowned in floods, 
choked for want of air, or burned by explosions. The 
mines are dangerous, and the work is difficult. 

4. Uses. — (1) Fuel for our fires. — For warmth in 
our houses and cooking our food. 

(2) Fuel for manufacturing purposes. — Engines 
worked by steam made from coal. 

(3) Making gas, gas tar, and other valuable products. 

V. Write Notes of a Lesson on the Cow. 

This subject must be made sufficiently simple and 
elementary in its treatment for young children. 

THE COW. 
Show a picture of a cow, ask its name, and how 
many children have seen a cow. 

1. Description. — A large animal, about four and a 
half feet high — a quadruped with cloven hoofs, and 



66 NOTES OF LESSONS FOP. YOUNG TEACHERS. 

generally with, horns — covered with short hair, gen- 
erally brown, or white, or black — feeds on grass, hay, 
and vegetables — after eating, and when resting, it 
chews the cud. 

In some countries cow is used like horse as a beast 
of burden. In this country it is kept by the farmer 
for the sake of its milk, and does no work. 

2. Uses. — (1) Alive. — Its milk is used for food, 
and is most suited for children. 

Butter comes from the milk by churning. Describe 
a churn, and mode of making butter. 

Cheese is made from the milk after it has been made 
sour. 

(2) Dead. — Beef is flesh of the cow. The flesh of 
a calf is called veal. 

Leather is made from the skin after tanning. 

Glue, etc., made from the hoofs and horns. 

3. Habits. — Harmless and gentle — loves to pasture 
quietly at home — fond of herding together. 

VI. Wrtte Notes of a Lesson ox Climate. 

This subject would be best understood by children 
in Classes IV.-VI. A terrestrial globe or a map of the 
hemispheres should be used for illustration, and a 
blackboard and chalk might profitably be employed 
for the same purpose. 



OUTLINE NOTES. 67 



CLIMATE. 



Introduction. — Some countries are very hot and 
dry : others are very cold and wet ; others are neither 
very hot nor very cold, and are called temperate. 
When we speak of these differences of heat and of 
the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere, we use 
the word " climate." 

1. The causes of differences of climate. — (1) Dis- 
tance from the equator. — Countries near the equator 
are always hot, because they receive the perpendicular 
rays of the sun. Countries near the North and South 
Poles are always cold, because they receive the rays 
of the sun obliquely. Thus Greenland is colder than 
Norway, and Norway than France, and France than 
Egypt. 

(2) Elevation. — In climbing a mountain, the higher 
we rise the less is the heat. Mountains, even in the 
hottest parts of the world, have their tops covered 
with snow. Quito, the highest city in the world, is 
just under the equator, at an elevation of 9600 feet. 
Two men have been known to meet in its streets, one 
shivering with the cold from the snows of the moun- 
tains above it, and the other perspiring with heat from 
the hot valleys beneath. 

(3) Nearness to the sea. — The sea remains about 
the same temperature all the year. The land changes 
temperature rapidly. In summer a sea-breeze cools 
the land, while in winter it makes it warmer. Towns 



68 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

near the coast are more temperate than towns far 
away from the sea. 

(4) Nature of the winds. — A south wind from the 
deserts of Africa makes Italy and Spain hot. A north 
wind makes Central Europe cold. 

(5) Nature of surrounding country. — High moun- 
tain ranges shelter some countries from cold or heat, 
as the Himalayas affect Thibet or India. 

2. The effects of differences of climate. — (1) Ani- 
mal and vegetable life improved by a warm climate. — 
In temperate and hot climates, plants, trees, and 
flowers grow to their natural size, and are strong and 
healthy. Animals are more numerous and diversified. 
In cold countries animals are few in number ; plants 
and trees are dwarfed and stunted ; even man seems 
to be dwarfed by the cold. 

(2) Different climates necessary for the varied natu- 
ral productions of the earth. — Materials for our food 
and clothing and comfort require every variety of 
climate. Silk, cotton, rice, sugar, tea, etc., require 
hot climates. Wheat, oats, butter, wool, etc., require 
temperate or cold climates. 

(3) Men adapt themselves to particular modes of life 
according to climate. — In hot countries men lose their 
energy, activity, and skill, and become listless and 
satisfied with the fruits of the earth. In cold climates 
men endure hardship, exposure, and cold till they be- 
come torpid and inactive. In temperate climates men 
work with hand and head, and exert their powers to 



OUTLINE NOTES. 69 

the utmost. The most powerful nations have always 
lived in temperate climates. 

3. Adaptation of man to every climate. — A man 
may live in any climate, if he will carefully study the 
effects of the climate, and adapt himself to it by 
his — 

(1) Food. — Eating and drinking only what is suited 
to the man, the place, and the climate. 

(2) Dress. — Wearing sufficient in quantity and of 
suitable quality for his health and comfort. 

(3) Habits. — Working only at the right time, sleep- 
ing during greatest heat of the day, avoiding intemper- 
ance, exposure, hardship, and the peculiar dangers of 
the country. 

VII. Write Notes of a Lesson ox the Whale. 

This subject is treated in the following notes for 
children from eight to ten years of age. A picture of 
a whale, with a piece of whalebone, may be used for 
illustration. 

THE WHALE. 

1. Description. — Largest animal in the world. 
Show picture, and compare its length with length 
of schoolroom. Length : from 30 to 90 feet. Skin : 
smooth and slippery, usually black, but sometimes 
gray. Head : about one-third of body. Mouth : very 
large, wide, and containing whalebone instead of teeth. 



70 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

Tn top of mouth two holes allow it to blow water out 
while it retains its food. Eyes : small for so large a 
creature ; they are about the size of the eyes of a cow, 
and are set in its head widely apart. Flesh : coarse 
and red like beef. Tail : large, heavy, and exceed- 
ingly strong. 

2. Where found. — In the ocean, chiefly in cold and 
temperate climates ; often near Greenland, in the 
Northern Seas. Some varieties are found in the 
Southern Seas. They migrate in search of food — 
smaller fishes, etc. 

3. Mode of capture. — Whales differ from fishes in 
having warm blood, and in being compelled to rise to 
the surface of the water regularly to breathe. Hunters 
strike them with harpoons while they are breathing. 
If they are wounded, they dive to the bottom, drag- 
ging harpoon and rope with them. When they rise 
again to breathe, they are wounded once more, and so 
the fight continues till whale dies, and its body floats 
on the surface. It is then made fast to the ship, and 
cut up by the sailors. 

4. Uses. — (1) Flesh. — Greenlanders, Laplanders, 
etc., fond of its coarse flesh for food. 

(2) Fat. — The blubber that lies between skin and 
flesh to keep it warm makes excellent oil. 

(3) Whalebone from its mouth is used for umbrella 
frames, etc. 



OUTLINE NOTES. 71 

VIII. Write Notes oe a Lesson on British India. 

Point out on map of Asia the position of India. 
Show that its fertile soil, warm climate, commanding 
position, and immense wealth have made it valuable. 
It has always been regarded as a prize worthy of a 
conqueror's highest ambition. 

1. History of British Settlements in India. — Discov- 
ery of Cape of Good Hope by Vasco di Gama gave an 
impulse to commerce. Portuguese, Dutch, and English 
began to trade with India. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth 
granted a charter to a number of London merchants, 
who formed the East India Company. About 1612 
the Company obtained permission from the native 
princes to establish factories at Surat, Ahmedabad, 
Cambay, and Gogo. In 1640 they settled at Madras, 
in 1645 at Calcutta, and in 1665 at Bombay. As mer- 
chants, they sent out to India gold, silver, lead, quick- 
silver, woollens, hardware, etc., and carried home 
calicoes, silk, diamonds, tea, pepper, drugs, saltpetre, 
etc. 

Gradually the Company and their agents took part 
in the quarrels of the native princes, and began to 
make conquests and rise to the position of governors 
and rulers of small states. Lord Clive by his great 
victories raised the Company to great authority and 
power. Warren Hastings, Lord Cornwallis, Marquis 
Wellesley, and others increased this authority by sub- 
sequent wars, intrigues, and conquests till the Indian 



72 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

Mutiny of 1857, when Queen Victoria was proclaimed 
sovereign of India, and the power of the Company as 
rulers came to an end. 

2. Extent of British Possessions in India. — From 
Himalayas to Cape Comorin 1800 miles. From Kur- 
rachi in Sinde to Rangoon in Pegu 1900 miles. Area, 
1,500,000 square miles. Coast line about 4500 miles. 

Presidencies. — Bengal, Madras, Bombay. 

States. — Northwest Provinces, Punjab, Oude, Brit- 
ish Burmah, Berar, Saugor, Nerbudda territories, etc. 
Many states, such as Gwalior, Indore, etc., are ruled by 
native chiefs and princes under the political suprem- 
acy and protection of the British Government. 

3. Benefits of British rule in India. — (1) Peace. — 
No foreign invader now overruns and devastates. 
Natives may cultivate soil and live in peace. British 
power is strong enough to protect them. 

(2) Order. — British will not permit quarrelsome, 
ambitious chiefs to rebel and disturb their neighbors. 
Good government is enforced in every state. 

(3) Justice. — Rich and poor have protection of just 
laws, honestly administered. 

IX. Write Notes of a Lesson ox Rivers. 

A river is a stream of water which flows into the 
sea, or into some other portion of water. 

1. Parts of a river. — (1) Source or spring where the 
water first appears. 



OUTLINE NOTES. 73 

(2) Bed or channel within which its waters are 
confined. 

(3) Right bank or border on the right-hand side of 
the stream looking from the source to the mouth. 

(4) Left bank or border on the left-hand side. 

(5) Mouth or termination where the water enters 
the sea. 

(6) Affluent or tributary, a smaller stream that flows 
into the river. 

(7) Confluence or place where the two streams unite. 

(8) Basin, the part of a country drained by a river 
with all its tributaries. 

(9) Watershed, the elevated land which divides one 
basin from another. 

(10) Waterfall, the sudden change in the level of 
the bed of a river causing the water to fall. 

(11) Cascade or cataract, a broken waterfall. 

(12) Rapid or part of the stream that runs swiftly. 

(13) Estuary, a very wide mouth of a river. 

(14) Delta, the land included between the extreme 
mouths of a river. 

2. Uses of rivers. — (1) Fertility. — The Nile makes 
Egypt fertile. Rivers in hot countries prevent land 
from becoming desert. 

(2) Commerce. — Mississippi brings the Eastern and 
Western States of America into communication with 
other countries. 

(3) Drainage. — Danube drains districts that would 
otherwise be marshes, with malaria, etc. 



74 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



X. Write Notes of a Lesson on Gibraltar. 

1. Description. — Gibraltar, a rocky promontory in 
the South of Spain — 3 miles long, f mile broad — in- 
habited by 26,000 persons, chiefly English, Spaniards, 
Jews, and Moors. The Rock is 1439 feet high, con- 
tains many large caverns, and is most strongly forti- 
fied. The town is built partly in the British and 
partly in the Spanish style of architecture, and has a 
strange appearance. It is a free port, at the entrance 
of the Mediterranean Sea, and 16 miles from the coast 
of Africa. It has no rivers or springs of fresh water. 
The people store the rain in tanks or cisterns. It is 
a garrison town, always well stocked with ammunition, 
provisions, etc. 

2. History. — Known from a very early period. 
Phoenicians called it and Ceuta, on the other side the 
strait, the " Pillars of Hercules," and considered it the 
western boundary of the world. It was captured by 
the Saracens in 711, and frequently changed owners 
during the long and bloody wars that followed. In 
1462 the Spaniards took it from the Moors, and held 
it till 1704, when it fell into the hands of the English 
under Sir George Kooke. In 1704-5 it was besieged 
by the French and Spanish troops, and in 1727 it was 
attacked by an overwhelming force, but on both occa- 
sions the British repulsed their assailants. 

The great siege lasted 3 years 7 months and 12 days 
(1779 to 1783). The garrison were saved from star- 



OUTLINE NOTES. 75 

vation by supplies brought by Admiral Rodney in 
1780, and Admiral Darby in 1781, and landed in face 
of the combined French and Spanish troops. A terrific 
bombardment followed from the land batteries, line- 
of-battle ships, gun and mortar boats. The English 
returned the fire, and by using red-hot balls set the 
Spanish ships and gunboats on fire. In the great 
attack, which lasted from the 8th to 14th September, 
1782, the Spaniards lost 2000 men in killed alone, all 
their floating batteries, and most of their ships. The 
English loss in the same week was only 10 killed and 
68 wounded. 

3. Government. — As a port Gibraltar is not safe. 
The anchorage is not good, and the bay is exposed to 
southwesterly winds. It is of little use to the Eng- 
lish except as a military station. It is governed by a 
Governor, who is also Commander of the forces. The 
inhabitants are subject to English laws, and live in 
peace and good order. 

XL Write Notes of a Lesson on Sugar. 

L Uses. — (1) Sweetening our food and making con- 
fectionery. 

(2) Preserving fruits as jam, candied peel, etc. 

(3) Molasses is obtained from the dregs. 

About 28 lbs. of sugar for each person is the annual 
average consumption in some countries. 

2. Origin. — Sugar, a vegetable production, found in 
most plants, but especially in the — 



76 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

(1) Sugar-cane. — A kind of tall grass, growing in 
the West Indies, Brazil, United States, and most 
tropical countries. When ripe the canes are cut and 
pressed to get out the juice or syrup, which is made 
into sugar. 

(2) Sugar-maple. — A tree found in North America 
and most temperate climates. A hole is made in trunk 
of tree, syrup drains out into a vessel placed to receive 
it. 

(3) Beet-root. — A vegetable used for feeding cattle ; 
is found in most temperate climates. Boot is washed, 
cut, crushed, and syrup made into sugar. During 
wars of French Revolution, Napoleon cultivated beet- 
root for making sugar in France with great success. 

3. Manufacture. — Syrup boiled, strained, purified, 
refined. 

Molasses the least valuable part of the syrup. 
Moist or brown sugar imperfectly purified. 
White, loaf, or lump sugar the best. 

XII. Write Notes of a Lesson on the Lion. 

1. Description. — Height, 4 feet ; length, 6 to 8 feet. 

Tail, about 3^ feet long. 

Head. — Large and round. The male has a mane, 
that grows longer and thicker as the animal grows 
older. The female has not a mane. 

Eyes. — Round and very large. When the lion is 
angry they shine like balls of fire. 



OUTLINE NOTES. 77 

Feet. — Armed with strong claws, incased in sheaths 
like the claws of a cat, but very much stronger. Soles 
of feet covered with a pad or cushion as soft as velvet. 

2. Peculiarities. — (1) Fierce. — Will attack any 
animal of greater size and speed by springing upon 
it from its lair or hiding-place. Deer, antelopes, etc., 
are its favorite food. 

(2) Strong. — Will carry off an ox as easily as a cat 
carries a mouse. Springs like a cat, and loves to take 
its prey by surprise. Seldom attacks openly. 

(3) Courageous. — When hunted will turn upon its 
pursuers, and sometimes kill the hunters. Lion hunt- 
ing dangerous sport. Men, women, and children often 
devoured. 

3. Where found. — In tropical countries, as Africa 
and India. 

Makes its lair near spring or river, to catch animals 
that come to drink. 

Hides in jungle, often comes near villages, and 
does much mischief by carrying off cattle and killing 
people. 

In the preceding examples we have adapted the 
subjects to every class of children in an elementary 
school, and have answered each question as fully as 
the time and conditions of an examination would re- 
quire. An intelligent student should now be able to 
imitate these models, and produce excellent outline 
notes of his own on any subject with which he is fa- 



78 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

miliar. He should remember the hints and advice 
given in previous chapters, and make his notes as 
brief, clear, and comprehensive as possible. The 
facts should be plainly written, and arranged in such 
a form that they may comprehend them at a glance. 
Taste, neatness, and sound judgment are nowhere 
more conspicuous than in the arrangement of good 
notes of lessons. 

We must now turn our attention to the preparation 
of " full notes ; " and in addition to the chief heads 
and condensed matter of the outline notes, we must 
add notes on method, with hints, explanations, and 
illustrations for our guidance in giving the lesson. 

As a practical example of how to prepare "full 
notes," we will take outline notes on the camel, and 
expand them by the addition of notes on method. 
We shall be able to make this plain to young teachers 
by the remarks, hints, and suggestions in the follow- 
ing chapter. 



PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 79 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 

If you are required to give outline notes of a lesson 
on "the Camel," you may summarize your facts in 
some such form as the following : — 

THE CAMEL. 

1. Found. — Africa, Arabia, Central Asia, etc. — hot 
countries with great deserts. 

2. Description. — Large quadruped, two humps on 
back, one hump on back of dromedary, long neck, 
small eyes, flat nose, dark brown hair, soft pliable 
feet, two stomachs. 

3. Peculiarities. — (1) Adapted to desert life. — Feet, 
eyes, nostrils, stomachs, humps on back, teeth, food. 

(2) Domesticated. — Trained to kneel, obey, serve ; 
but quarrelsome, sometimes unruly. 

4 Uses. — (1) Alive. — As beast of burden. — Kneels 
to be loaded, strong, patient, enduring. Will carry a 
load of 1000 lbs. Dromedary lighter, smaller, swifter, 
will carry twice as much as a mule. 



80 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

Milk. — A favorite article of food among Arabs. 
(2) Dead. — Flesh as food ; often salted or dried in 
the sun. 

Fat, melted, used for oil or butter. 

Hair, for painters' pencils, and coarse cloth. 

Skin, for leather, harness, etc. 

These notes express in the briefest and clearest 
terms the chief heads of the lesson, and the condensed 
matter. We have enough material here for an intel- 
ligent, practical, and interesting lesson. Our next 
question must be how to present it in the most attrac- 
tive form, and make the best use of the facts we have 
gathered. 

Let us consider, under the head of method, the 
introduction, with such illustrations, explanations, 
hints, and suggestions as may be helpful to young 
teachers. 

Introduction. — A lesson to young children in this 
country on the camel should be introduced by a good 
picture. Few American children see a camel except 
in a menagerie. They should be enabled by picture 
and comparison to form a correct idea of its form, 
size, and appearance. It is not enough to say it is 
eight feet high, the teacher should point to some ob- 
ject or piece of furniture in school that is the same 
height, for the sake of comparison. 

Illustrations. — Children eight years of age should 
know something about a map. The map of Asia should 
be shown, and the native home of the camel pointed 



PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 81 

out. It should be explained that the camel has been 
imported to other countries having a different climate 
from its original home. 

In describing camels' hair, a painter's pencil should 
be shown, or a coarse piece of hair-cloth should be 
obtained, if possible. Any tradesman would lend a 
specimen for such purposes. 

In deciding what points of the lesson require illus- 
tration, we must be guided by the mental condition of 
the children. We must ask ourselves what a child of 
average intelligence in the class would be likely to 
fail to understand. We know that young children 
form ideas of what they have not seen by comparing 
them with things that they have seen. It is impor- 
tant, therefore, that our comparisons should be apposite 
and exact. 

Explanations. — Words that fully express our mean- 
ing should not be substituted for less expressive words 
because they happen to be a little above the children's 
present attainment. There is often a high educational 
value in the use of a new word that represents a new 
truth. 

Phrases that contain a figure of speech or poetic 
reference must be illustrated and explained. 

Hints and Suggestions. — Waste no time in needless 
description, explanation, or illustration. Keep closely 
to the subject, and progress as rapidly as you can with 
safety. Conclude as soon as you reach the end of your 
matter. Do not talk when you have nothing new to 
say. One of the greatest vices of the age is the habit 



82 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

of talking when the matter is not of the slightest 
value. 

Close the lesson with a brief recapitulation, bring- 
ing out the leading features of your outline notes, and 
impress the fact by a few direct personal questions. 

Bearing these remarks on the method of treatment 
in mind, let us now proceed to apply them in the fol- 
lowing full notes on the camel. 

At the head of the paper write the subject, and give 
particulars of the age of the children for whom it is 
intended, the length of time you intend to occupy, the 
object of the lesson, and the apparatus you will require. 

Then rule your paper so as to allow three columns, 
for chief heads, condensed matter, and method, as in 
the following examples. Underline the most impor- 
tant words and phrases, such as are printed in differ- 
ent type, so as to arrest the attention. Write plainly, 
arrange the matter neatly, and put your thoughts in 
the most attractive forms. 

Carefully study the examples of full notes given in 
Chapter IX., and try to imitate them and reproduce 
the ideas in different forms. 



PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 



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84 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 





o 

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5 Fat renewed by rest and 
food after great exertion. 
Show picture of dromedary, 

c Protection from rough, 
hard ground when kneeling 
or walking. 


7 Explain "adapted" — 
"made to fit." 

8 Show peculiar need of 
protection from desert dan- 
gers, such as storms, starva- 
tion, and hardship. Then 
show that camel is prepared 
in every respect. 

9 Explain "tamed," "fit 
to live among men." 


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which forms a reserve 5 of nourishment for long 
journeys, when it takes little food or water. 

Legs and feet — cushioned on knees and feet 
with elastic pads. 6 Feet partly cloven, and very 
pliable. 

Stomach — besides ordinary stomach for food, 
it has a second that holds a large quantity of 
water to last many days. 


1. A dapted ' to desert life. — Feet 8 will not sink 
in soft sand, being pliable and able to expand. 
Eyes 8 and nostrils small, and protected from fly- 
ing storms of sand by strong hair. Can see, hear, 
and smell acutely; find water a long way off. 
Stomachs 8 and humps give great powers of en- 
durance. Will fast for a week or ten days if ne- 
cessary. Teeth 8 like a dog, for crushing dates, 
husks, hard beans, etc., on which it feeds. 

2. Domesticated. 9 — Naturally quarrelsome 
and unruly. Will sometimes fight. Can make 
serious wounds with its teeth. Trained to kneel 
to be loaded and unloaded, and made to obey and 
serve its master. Is often kept without food or 
water several days to accustom it to hardship, 
hunger, and thirst when being trained. 

Camels live thirty and forty years. 


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86 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 

The following examples of outline and full notes of 
a Reading Lesson for Class IV. may serve as a model 
for imitation. They convey valuable hints on the 
preparation of notes. 

THE GOOD LIFE A LONG LIFE. 

It is not growing like a tree 

In bulk doth make man better be ; 

Or standing long, an oak three hundred year, 

To fall a log at last, dry, bald, and sere. 

A lily of a day 

Is fairer far in May, 

Although it fall and die that night ; 

It was the plant and flower of light. 

In small proportions we just beauties see, 

And in short measures life may perfect be. 

Ben Jonson. 

After reading the poetry carefully through, and con- 
sidering the grammatical construction of its sentences, 
we see the ideas expressed very clearly, and may write 
them in the following order : — 

OUTLINE NOTES OF EEADING LESSON. 

I. Human life is compared to three things, — a tree, 
an oak, a lily. 

1. The tree grows only in bulk or size; we never 
understand it perfectly. 

2. The oak grows only in age ; we never see the full 
measure and purpose of its life. 



PREPARATION OF FULL NOTES. 87 

3. The lily grows and becomes perfect, though it 
blooms only for a day. 

II. The practical lessons taught by the poet are : — 

1. It is better to grow in usefulness than in size and 
age. 

2. It is wiser to use our opportunities well now than 
trust to the future. 

3. Life must be measured by deeds, and not by 
years. 

We have now before us the matter of the lesson in 
a convenient form. Let us consider the method. 

Children in the Fourth Class will be about eleven 
years of age. They should be able to point out a 
figure of speech, and explain it intelligently. They 
should know that poets often present plain, homely 
truths by emblems ; and they should be taught to re- 
move the beautiful drapery of poetry, and expose the 
truth for themselves. In the practical work of a school 
we should never do for a child what it is able to do for 
itself. The truest kindness is to insist on self-reliance 
and personal effort. A few questions will bring out 
ths three emblems — the tree, oak, lily, and the differ- 
ent forms of growth. The teacher should then take 
the emblems one by one, and in the poet's own way 
bring out his teaching. He may vary the illustrations 
so as to present it in a new light, but he must use up 
all the poet's materials, and bring out the meaning of 
every phrase and figure of speech. 



88 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 





o 

X 
H 

a 


Let children read the ex- 
tract a few times. Bring out 
emblems by questions. 

Explain " bulk " = size. 

1 Example. — In old fables 
giants are represented as 
strong to do mischief; fairies 
are pictured gentle and good. 
Better be a fairy than a giant. 


Explain " bald " = with- 
out leaves; "sere" = with- 
ered. 

2 Example.— A bent sap- 
ling will become a crooked 
tree. That which is crooked 
cannot be made straight. 


Explain " fairer " = more 
lovely; " light " = truth or 
wisdom. 


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Tree — large, leafy, fruitless, without beauty or 
usefulness that we can see. Time seems only to 
make it more cumbrous, bulky, and worthless to 
the world. 

Growing in size makes men no better. A bad 
boy, if he becomes a bad man, may be able to do 
more harm. 1 


Oak — gnarled, twisted, dry, and dead. It 
stood three hundred years, and then fell, with- 
out beauty, strength, or life. It may have been 
of some use to the world; but we cannot see the 
measure and purpose of its life. To us it is a 
withered old tree only. 

Growing in age makes men no better unless 
they grow in wisdom also. Time often only con- 
firms crooked ways,' 2 and strengthens bad habits. 
Old men sometimes fail to make a long life a 
good life. 


Lily — blooming for first time on a sunny day 
in May. Stranger plucks it, and takes it home ; 
but it fades and dies. It has a short life; but it 


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92 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 





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Introduce the subject by 
asking what an auxiliary is, 
and requiring the children 
to give illustrations of its 
meaning. 

1 Make the children give 
such a definition of this in 
their own words. 


2 Write examples in the 
order the children give tliem. 

3 Require the children to 
point out the relations. 

Explain "tense" = time; 
" mood "= manner ;" voice" 
= a particular mode of in- 
flection. 


H 

a 

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w 
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An auxiliary is a helper of any kind, as an as- 
sistant teacher to master, curate to rector, ser- 
vant to mistress. 

Some words will not express exactly what we 
mean by themselves; they require other words to 
help to make our meaning perfectly clear. Thus 
Me say, "I shall love" (future); "shall" is an 
auxiliary or helper to the verb " love." Hence, 1 
auxiliary verbs are used to assist other verbs. 


I will write on the blackboard a list of auxil- 
iary verbs in one column, and show in the next 
column to what they relate. Now give me the 
names of several. 

Examines.' 2 Relatinrj to 3 

shall, be tense and voice 

do, could mood 

may, should mood 

will tense 


CO 

a 

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a 



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a 
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Examples. 



94 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 





X 
H 
W 


Vary the examples and re- 
lations till all the children 
understand them. 


4 Let the children give 
these definitions in their 
own words from a variety of 
examples on the blackboard. 

5 Explain " compound " = 
united. 


a 

H 
H 
< 


M 
w. 

w 

'A 




did tense 

was, were voice 

is, be voice 

would, can mood 

might have been tense, mood, and voice 

would have mood and tense 

had been tense and voice 


1. Auxiliary verbs* are used to express tense 
or time.— Shall, will, did, has, have, had, etc., 
belong to this class. 

2. Auxiliary verbs are used to express mood. 

— Maw might, can, could, shall, should, will, 
would, may, must, etc., refer to the mode or 
manner of doing a thing. 

... Auxiliary verbs are used to express voice. 

— Am, is, was, w T ere, be, been, etc., are of this 
kind. Verbs which tell of doing are said to be 
of the active voice; those which tell of what is 
done to them are of the passive voice. 

4. Compound 5 auxiliaries are used to express 
mood, tense, and voice. — They give richness, 
variety, and fulness of expression to our lan- 
guage. 


03 
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FULL NOTES. 



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Refer to lesson on camel. 
Show that as camel is most 
useful in hot climates, rein- 
deer is most useful in cold 
climates. Show picture. 

1 Point out places on map. 

2 No tame reindeer in Ice- 
land. 

3 "Domesticated" =tame, 
living with man. 


4 Point out adaptation of 
reindeer to climate — provis- 
ion to enable it to endure 
cold and hardship. 




M 

H 
H 

o 

o 

o 


Chiefly in Arctic regions, 1 among hills of Lap- 
land and Greenland. It is found wild in North- 
ern Europe, Asia, and America. Wild herds 
have also been introduced to Iceland. - 

Domesticated 3 reindeer are smaller than wild 
ones, and are found in Siberia, Lapland, and 
Greenland. 


About size of a cow — four and a half feet high ; 
rather large head; strong neck; stout body and 
limbs; long, branching horns; hair long and 
thick; feet cloven like a cow; skin very hard and 
thick about forehead, nose, and feet. 4 


1. Wild and restless. — Seldom sleep; roam 
about hills in search of food and to avoid ene- 
mies; revengeful and fierce to foes; not easily 


tr. 

C 

w 

w 

fc. 
5 


a 
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CD 

u 

CD 


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96 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



§ 


6 Pits often dug and traps 
set to catch wild reindeer. 

6 Show how these insects 
torment sheep, horses, cattle, 
etc., in this country. 

7 Wolves often killed by 
reindeer combining to attack 
them. 


8 "Sledge" = cariiage 
without wheels. Describe 
or draw on blackboard. 

9 " Pemniican " = flesh 
dried in sun or air, pounded 
into a paste and preserved in 
cakes, will keep a long time. 


| 

< 

a 


a 

S5 

a 
a 
& 



u 


tamed unless taken young; give hunters much 
trouble to approach or take them. 5 

2. Unfitted for warm climates. — Gad-fly or 
bot 6 deposits eggs in nostrils and under skin; 
destroys whole herds in summer; to avoid them 
reindeer take to the hills. Seldom live long in 
warm climates. 

3. Can endure great hardship. — Will defend 
themselves against wolves, bears, etc. ; feed on 
coarse herbage, leaves, wild shrubs, and in winter 
on moss under the snow." 


1. Alive. — Used as beasts of burden; draw 
sledges 8 weighing 200 lbs. at eight to ten miles 
an hour for a long time. 

Give excellent milk. 

2. Dead. — Flesh is eaten as food ; often pre- 
served as pemniican. 

Skin provides warm clothing; hard skin of face 
and feet made into shoes. 

Horns used for cups, spoons, etc. 

Sinews made into bowstrings, thread, etc. 

Rich Laplanders often possess 2000 reindeer, 
wealth reckoned by number of deer he owns. 


a 
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FULL NOTES. 



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Two cents i 

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On some line 

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t before the post-office closes many people 
their letters, stamp them, and put them 
be box. Let iia go inside the office and see 
letters taken out of the box. 
rhey are counted, and the number of let- 
postal-cards, newspapers, books, etc., regis- 
i in a book. 

rhey are stamped with the name ot the 
where they are posted, and the date. All 
ge stamps are defaced - so that they cannot 
ed again. 

Heavy letters are weighed and charged it 
eavy. 

Letters without stamps are charged double. 
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98 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



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100 NOTES OF LESSONS FOR YOUNG TEACHERS. 



CHAPTER X. 



RECENT EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 



I. Write Notes of a Lesson ox — 



Mountains. 

Snow. 

The Parts of a Flower. 

A Photograph. 

Courage. 

The Dog. 

The Caspian Sea. 

The Shape of the Earth. 

Corn. 

Pronouns. 

A Dictation Lesson. 

British Settlements in Farther 

India. 
The Gulf Stream. 
Silver. 

A Pane of Glass. 
A Writing Lesson. 



The Rivers of India. 

A Pump. 

The Tiger. 

British Settlements in China. 

Barley. 

The Beaver. 

Prepositions. 

The Construction of a Map. 

Salmon. 

Salt. 

Earthquakes. 

The Basin of the Danube. 

Australia. 

Persia. 

The Basin of the Medway. 

Silk. 

Malta. 



II. Write Full Notes of a Lesson on 



Intransitive and Transitive 
Verbs. 

Adjectives. 

Cleanliness. 

A Fraction. 

Any King's Reign. 

Coins. 

Egypt. 

Grammar. 

Vulgar Fractions. 

The Employments of Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode Island, 
Pennsylvania. 



The Fox. 

Gold. 

Cotton. 

Rice. 

Wheat. 

European Turkey. 

Verbs. 

Proportion. 

The Herring. 

The Otter. 

Evaporation. 

The Locomotive. 

A Telegram. 



RECENT EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 101 

The Tropics and a Tropical Climate. — Illustrate 
your lesson by some colony, and draw a map of it. 

The Formation and Course of a River. 

The Formation of Coral Islands ; or on The Wild 
Animals of North America. 

Day and Night, and show how you would explain 
and illustrate — (a) The general cause; (b) The rea- 
sons for the different amount of light and darkness at 
different times of the year. 

Fruit Trees. 

Climate, showing particularly what parts of the 
earth's surface are hottest, which are coldest, and the 
reason why.. 

The Native Races of America, Africa, and Australia, 
under these heads — (a) Appearance; (b) Habits and 
pursuits ; (c) History and present condition. 

Grasses. 

Atlantic Ocean : its shape, boundaries, currents, 
depth, islands, and prevailing winds. 

Birds of Prey. 

The Mediterranean Sea : the rivers which flow into 
it. and the famous cities which stand on it. 

The River St. Lawrence, Mississippi, or Amazon. 

The Railroads which pass through your county. 

A Coal Mine. 

Latitude and Longitude: the lines by which they 
are marked, and the uses of these lines, especially to 
those at sea. Give examples in illustration. 



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Vol. III. The Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce. 
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